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97. Taylor, Literature and Society, pp. 271–3.

98. D. L. Burgin ‘Sophia Parnok and Soviet-Russian Censorship, 1922–1933’, in Eaton (ed.), Enemies, pp. 44–5; Gottfried Benn described his years in the wilderness as a ‘double life’, Doppelleben.

99. On Beckmann see Barron, ‘Degenerate Art’, p. 203; on Pasternak, Gladkov, Meetings with Pasternak, pp. 88–90; on exile see M. Durzak (ed.) Die deutsche Exilliteratur 1933–1945 (Stuttgart, 1973), pp. 10–19. Some German artists and writers moved to the Soviet Union. See K. Kudlinska ‘Die Exilsituation in der USSR’, in Durzak, deutsche Exilliteratur, pp. 159–72.

100. Y. Yevtushenko (ed.) Twentieth-Century Russian Poetry (London, 1993), p. 180, ‘Requiem. 1935–40’, written 1961.

101. Yevtushenko, Russian Poetry, p. 184, ‘To Death’, 19 August 1939.

102. Barron, ‘Degenerate Art’, pp. 203, 269–70; N. Wolf Kirchner (London, 2003), pp. 86–90.

103. Lahuson, How Life Writes the Book, pp. 152–9.

104. G. D. Hollander Soviet Political Indoctrination: Developments in Mass Media and Propaganda since Stalin (New York, 1972), p. 210.

105. R. Stites Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society since 1900 (Cambridge, 1992.), pp. 74–6; Fitzpatrick, Cultural Front, p. 212.

106. M. Kater ‘Forbidden Fruit? Jazz in the Third Reich’, American Historical Review, 94 (1989), pp. 16–20; H. Bergmeier and R. E. Lotz Hitler’s Airwaves: the Inside Story of Nazi Radio Broadcasting and Propaganda Swing (New Haven, Conn., 1997), pp. 138–44; C. Lusane Hitler’s Black Victims (New York, 2002), pp. 201–3.

107. Bergmeier and Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves, p. 139, 145; Lusane, Hitler’s Black Victims, pp. 202–3.

108. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, p. 82; M. W. Hopkins Mass Media in the Soviet Union (New York, 1970), p. 94; A. Inkeles Public Opinion in Soviet Russia: a Study in Mass Persuasion (Cambridge, Mass., 1950), pp. 226–7, 235–6, 255. In 1947 music supplied 60 per cent of programmes, political broadcasts 19.4 per cent, literary programmes 8.6 per cent, children’s programmes 7.9 per cent.

109. Bergmeier and Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves, p. 6.

110. Bergmeier and Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves, p. 7.

111. Bergmeier and Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves, p. 8.

112. M. Turovskaya ‘The 1930s and 1940s: cinema in context’, in R. Taylor and D. Spring (eds) Stalinism and Soviet Cinema (London, 1993), p. 43.

113. Turovskaya, The 1930s and 1940s’, p. 42; Hollander, Soviet Political Indoctrination, pp. 214–15; Inkeles, Public Opinion, pp. 301–3.

114. Turovskaya, The 1930s and 1940s’, pp. 43, 45.

115. P. Kenez ‘Soviet cinema in the age of Stalin’, in Taylor and Spring Stalinism and Soviet Cinema, pp. 56–7, 61; Turovskaya,

The 1930s and 1940s’, p. 42; R. Taylor ‘Red stars, positive heroes and personality cults’, in Taylor and Spring, Stalinism and Soviet Cinema, p. 95.

116. Turovskaya, ‘The 1930s and 1940s’, p. 51.

117. Moritz, ‘Film Censorship’, p. 188; Taylor, Film Propaganda, pp. 145, 151; Welch, Propaganda and the German Cinema, p. 43.

118. Welch, Propaganda and the German Cinema, pp. 31, 35.

119. D. Welch ‘Nazi Film Policy: Control, Ideology, and Propaganda’, in Cuomo, National Socialist Cultural Policy, p. 113; Welch, Propaganda and the German Cinema, p. 14.

120. S. Hake Popular Cinema of the Third Reich (Austin, Tex., 2001), pp. 130–31; Moritz, ‘Film Censorship’, pp. 186–7.

121. S. Kracauer From Caligari to Hitler: a Psychological History of the German Film (Princeton, NJ, 1974), pp. 269–70.

122. E. Khokhlova ‘Forbidden fi lms of the 1930s’, in Taylor and Spring, Stalinism and Soviet Cinema, p. 94.

123. J. Haynes New Soviet Man: Gender and Masculinity in Stalinist Soviet Cinema (Manchester, 2003), p. 52; L. Attwood ‘The Stalin Era’, in Attwood (ed.) Red Women on the Silver Screen: Soviet Women and Cinema from the beginning to the end of the Communist era (London, 1993), pp. 57–8.

124. Attwood, ‘Stalin Era’, p. 65; M. Enzensberger ‘“We were born to turn a fairy tale into reality”: Grigori Alexandrov’s The Radiant Path’, in Taylor and Spring, Stalinism and Soviet Cinema, pp. 97–108.

125. Welch, ‘Nazi Film Policy’, p. 109.

126. Hake, Popular Cinema of the Third Reich, pp. 192–9.

127. Kracauer, Caligari to Hitler, pp. 255–6.

128. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, pp. 73–9; Hollander, Soviet Political Indoctrination, pp. 214–15.

129. Marsh, Images of Dictatorship, pp. 27–8.

130. F. J. Miller Folklore for Stalin: Russian Folklore and Pseudofolklore of the Stalin Era (New York, 1990), p. 7.

131. Miller, Folklore for Stalin, pp. 69, 71; R. Robin ‘Stalin and Popular Culture’, in H. Günther (ed.) The Culture of the Stalin Period (London, 1990), p. 29.

132. L. Mally ‘Autonomous Theatre and the Origins of Socialist Realism: the 1932 Olympiad of Autonomour Art’, Russian Review, 52 (1993), pp. 198–211; see too Lebedeva, ‘Soviet Culture of the 1930s’, pp. 68–76, 83–5.

133. J. Macleod The New Soviet Theatre (London, 1943), pp. 53–7, 65.

134. Taylor, Literature and Society, pp. 246–61.

135. W. Niven ‘The Birth of Nazi Drama’, in London (ed.), Theatre under the Nazis, pp. 54–5.

136. E. Levi ‘Opera in the Nazi Period’, in London (ed.), Theatre under the Nazis, pp. 62–73; see too R. Stommer ‘“Da oben versinkt einem der Alltag…”: Thingstätten im Dritten Reich als Demonstration der Volksgemeinschaftsideologie’, in D. Peukert and J. Reulecke (eds) Die Reihen fast Geschlossen: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Alltags unterm Nationalsozialismus (Wuppertal, 1981), pp. 154 ff.

137. B. Drewniak ‘The Foundations of Theater Policy in Nazi Germany’, in Cuomo, National Socialist Cultural Policy, pp. 68, 82–3; Stommer, ‘Thingstätten im Dritten Reich’, pp. 170–72.

138. Brecht, Poems, p. 299. On Benjamin see B. Taylor and W. van der Will ‘Aesthetics and National Socialism’, in Taylor and van der Will, Nazifi cation of Art, p. 11. On the role of aesthetics in politics see P. Reidel ‘Aspekte ästhetischer Politik im NS-Staat’? in Hermann and Nassen, Formative Ästhetik, pp. 14–21; P. Labanyi ‘Images of Fascism: Visualization and Aes-theticization in the Third Reich’, in M. Lafann (ed.) The Burden of German History: 1919–1945 (London, 1988), pp. 156–60, 170–72. See too S. Behrenbeck Der Kult um die toten Helden: nationalsozialistische Mythen, Riten und Symbole (Vierow bei Greifswald, 1996).

139. Labanyi, ‘Images of Fascism’, p. 169.

140. Spotts, Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics, pp. 100–101.

141. A. Speer Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs (London, 1970), pp. 58–9.