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49. Brady, Spirit and Structure, p. 92.

50. S. Roberts The House that Hitler Built (London, 1937), p. 242; J. London (ed.) Theatre Under the Nazis (Manchester, 2000), pp. 8–9, 12.

51. Brady, Spirit and Structure, p. 88.

52. Steinweis, ‘Weimar Culture’, pp. 406–19.

53. Steinweis, Art;, Ideology, and Economics, pp. 4–6.

54. Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, pp. 220–22; Garrard and Garrard, Soviet Writers’Union, p. 24; Hingley, Russian Writers and Society, p. 207.

55. Steinweiss, Art, Ideology and Economics, pp. 74–9, 81–95.

56. J. W. Baird To Die for Germany: Heroes in the Nazi Pantheon (Bloom-ington, Ind., 1990), p. 145.

57. Baird, To Die for Germany, pp. 146–7.

58. Baird, To Die for Germany, p. 148.

59. E. J. Simmons ‘The Organization Writer (1934–46)’, in Hayward and Labedz, Literature and Revolution, pp. 84–5; Tregub, The Heroic Life of Nikolai Ostrovsky, pp. 7, 14, 38.

60. T. Lahusen How Life Writes the Book: Real Socialism and Socialist Realism in Stalin’s Russia (Ithaca, NY, 1997), pp. 13–15, 48–50, 53, 64–8, 79–80, 189–91.

61. R. Bartlett Wagner in Russia (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 227, 259–67, 271–2, 288–9.

62. Figes, Natasha’s Dance, pp. 480–81; Simmons, The Organization Writer’, p. 96; Fitzpatrick, Cultural Front, p. 207.

63. H. Ermolaev Censorship in Soviet Literature (Lanham, Md, 1997), p. 53.

64. Clark, The Soviet Novel, p. 4; M. Gorky Mother (Moscow, 1949). The introduction claimed: ‘though it was written ten years before the establishment of Soviet power in Russia, we count it the fi rst stone laid in the foundations of Soviet literature’ (p. 5).

65. Yedlin, Maxim Gorky, pp. 178, 180–83, 186, 192–3, 209 ff.

66. E. Levi Music in the Third Reich (London, 1994), pp. 178–82; P. McGilli-gan Fritz Lang: the Nature of the Beast (London, 1997), pp. 173, 174–6.

67. Levi, Music in the Third Reich, pp. 98–9, 192–3.

68. Meyer, ‘Musical Façade’, p. 175; on literary conventions see J. M. Ritchie German Literature under National Socialism (London, 1983), pp. 96–101; T. Alkemeyer and A. Pichantz ‘Insezenierte Körperträume: Reartikulation von Herrschaft und Selbstbeherrschung in Körperbildern des Faschismus’, in U. Hermann and U. Nassen (eds) Formative Ästhetik im Nationalsozialismus. Intentionen, Medien und Praxisformen totalitärer ästhetischer Herrschaft und Beherrschung (Weinheim, 1994), p. 88; R. Taylor Literature and Society in Germany 1918–1945 (Brighton, 1980), pp. 236–44.

69. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, pp. 1–6; G. V. Kostyrchenko ‘Soviet Censorship in 1945–52’, Voprosii istorii, 11–12 (1996), pp. 87–8.

70. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, pp. 7, 57; Kostyrchenko, ‘Soviet Censorship’, p. 92, gives the number of censors in the organization as 1,000; J. Plumper ‘Abolishing Ambiguity: Soviet Censorship Practices in the 1930s’, Russian Review, 60 (2001), pp. 527–8, 533.

71. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, p. 57; Kostyrchenko, ‘Soviet Censorship’, p. 92, gives the following fi gures for censorship work during the war: 235,031 newspaper editions checked; 207,942 Journal articles; 71,740 books; 158,998 brochures.

72. Plumper, ‘Abolishing Ambiguity’, pp. 530–31.

73. Plumper, ‘Abolishing Ambiguity’, pp. 535–7.

74. Plumper, ‘Abolishing Ambiguity’, p. 527.

75. Reid, ‘Socialist Realism’, p. 179.

76. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, pp. 43–5, 56; V. G. Lebedeva Totalitarian and Mass Elements in Soviet Culture of the 1930s’, Russian Studies in History, 42 (2003), pp. 81–4. On Fadayev see Vickery, ‘Zhdanov-ism’, pp. 114–15; R. Cockrell (ed.), introduction to A. Fadeev The Rout (London, 1995), pp. xi – xii.

77. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, p. 46.

78. H.-W. Strätz ‘Die studentische “Aktion wider den undeutschen Geist” im Frühjahr 1933’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 16 (1968), pp. 347–53; Brecht, Poems, pp. 294, 568; Richard, Nazisme et la Culture, p. 211; Ritchie, German Literature, p. 68–9. Strictly speaking there were two fi rst authors, Marx and the German socialist Karl Kautsky.

79. Roberts, House that Hitler Built, p. 248.

80. See for example G. Neesse Die NSDAP: Versuch einer Rechtsdeutung (Stuttgart, 1935), frontispiece.

81. Moritz, ‘Film Censorship’, p. 188; R. Taylor Film Propaganda – Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany (London, 1998), pp. 145–6.

82. D. Welch Propaganda and the German Cinema 1933–45 (London, 2001), p. 14.

83. K. B. Eaton (ed.) Enemies of the People: the Destruction of Soviet iterary, Theater, and Film Arts in the 1930s (Evanston, Ill., 2002), pp. xx – xxi.

84. E. Braun ‘Vsevolod Meyerhold: the Final Act’, in Eaton, Enemies, pp. 151–9.

85. J. Rubinstein Tangled Loyalties: the Life and Times of Ilya Ehrenburg (London, 1996), pp. 45, 49–50, 69, 176.

86. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, p. 50.

87. J. E. Curtis (ed.) Mikhail Bulgakov: Manuscripts Don’t Burn, A Life in Diaries and Letters (London, 1991), p. 284, letter from Bulgakov to V. Veresayev, 11 March 1939.

88. L. Milne Mikhail Bulgakov: a Critical Biography (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 259–60.

89. Milne, Bulgakov, pp. 220–25; Curtis, Manuscripts Don’t Burn, pp. 229–30.

90. Taylor, Literature and Society, p. 215.

91. Strätz, ‘“Aktion wider den undeutschen Geist”’, p. 350; Taylor, Literature and Societyp, p. 218. In general see A. E. Steinweis ‘Cultural Eugenics: Social Policy, Economic Reform, and the Purge of Jews from German Cultural Life’, in Cuomo, National Socialist Cultural Policy, pp. 23–37.

92. Levi, Music in the Third Reich, p. 48.

93. Levi, Music in the Third Reich, pp. 30–31; E. Levi ‘Music and National Socialism: The Politicisation of Criticism, Composition and Performance’, in B. Taylor and W. van der Will (eds) The Naziftcation of Art: Art, Music, Architecture and Film in the Third Reich (Winchester, 1990), pp. 162–4; B. Geissmar The Baton and the Jackboot: Recollections of Musical Life (London, 1988), p. 69.

94. G. BennBriefeanF. W. Oetze 1931–1945 (Wiesbaden, 1977), pp. 33–5, letter from Benn to Oetze, 25 April 1934.

95. G. Benn Briefe an Tilly Wedekind 1930–1955 (Stuttgart, 1986), pp. 267–8, letter from Benn to Tilly Wedekind, 11 January 1938.

96. Benn, Briefe an F. W. Oetze, pp. 186–7, President, Reich Chamber of Writers, to Benn, 18 March 1938; see too F. J. Raddatz Gottfried Benn: Leben – niederer Wahn: Eine Biographie (Munich, 2001), pp. 168–73.