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38. Bacon, Gulag at War, pp. 139–44; Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, pp. 94–5.

39. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, p. 16.

40. Bacon, Gulag at War, pp. 142–3.

41. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, p. 17.

42. Stettner, ‘Archipel GULag’, pp. 181, 205–6.

43. Stettner, ‘Archipel GULag’, pp. 203–4; Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 50–52.

44. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 17–18; Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, pp. 65–7.

45. Sofsky, Order of Terror, pp. 35–6; D. A. Hackett (ed.) The Buchenwald Report (Boulder, Colo., 1995), pp. 112–13.

46. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, p. 230.

47. Kaienberg, ‘Vernichtung durch Arbeit, p. 60.

48. Kirstein, Konzentrationslager Natzweiler, p. 65; K. Orth ‘Gab es eine Lagergesellschaft? “Kriminelle” und politische Häftlinge im Konzentrationslager’, in N. Frei, S. Steinbacher and B. Wagner (eds) Ausbeutung, Vernichtung, Öffentlichkeit: neue Studien zur nationalsozialistischen Lagerpolitik (Munich, 2000), p. 119.

49. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 35–7; Bacon, Gulag at War, p. 153. In 1944 60.9 per cent were Russians, 11.1 per cent Ukrainians.

50. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, p. 22; J. A. Getty, G. T. Rittersporn and V. N. Zemskov ‘Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years: A First Approach on the Basis of the Archival Evidence’, American Historical Review, 98 (1993), p. 1031–3; N. Werth and G. Moullec (eds) Rapports secrets sovietiques: La societe russe dans les documents confi dentiels 1921–1991 (Paris, 1994), p. 386, Report of the chief of the GUlag on the work of the GUlag during the Great Patriotic War, 10 March 1945, which gives fi gures for ‘counter-revolutionaries’ and common criminals, 1941–45.

51. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, p. 25.

52. C. Füllberg-Stolberg, M. Jung, R. Riebe and M. Scheitenberger (eds) Frauen in Konzentrationslagern Bergen-Beisen, Ravensbrück (Bremen, 1994), p. 79. On the proportion of ‘asocials’ see Orth, Das System der Konzentrationslager, pp. 51–3. In the late 1930s this proportion was high: 58 per cent at Sachsenhausen in 1938.

53. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 30–31; Stettner, ‘Archipel GULag’, pp. 202–3; On Akmolinsk camp, V. Shapovalov (ed.), Remembering the Darkness: Women in Soviet Prisons (Lanham, Md, 2001), p. 207.

54. J. Morrison Ravensbrück: Everyday Life in a Woman’s Concentration Camp (London, 2000), pp. 27–9, 86.

55. Kaienberg, ‘KZ-Haft und Wirtschaftsinteresse’, p. 51.

56. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 32–3; Schwarz, nationalsozialistischen Lager, pp. 84–6; Werth and Moullec, Rapports secrets, p. 387.

57. Shapovalov, Remembering the Darkness, p. 206.

58. M. Nahon Birkenau: Camp of Death (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1989), pp. 37–9.

59. Morrison, Ravensbriick, pp. 33–4.

60. Parvilahti, Beria’s Gardens, pp. 93–7.

61. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, p. 135.

62. Dwork and van Pelt, Auschwitz, pp. 263–4.

63. M. T. Allen The Banality of Evil Reconsidered: SS Mid-level Managers of Extermination Through Work’, Central European History, 30 (1997), p. 263; see too A. Beyerchen ‘Rational Means and Irrational Ends: Thoughts on the Technology of Racism in the Third Reich’, Central European History, 30 (1997), pp. 386–402.

64. Parvilahti, Berief s Gardens, p. 95; D. Dallin and B. Nicolaevsky Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (London, 1947), pp. 13–14.

65. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 15–17.

66. Parvilahti, Bend’s Gardens, p. 126.

67. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, pp. 164–5.

68. Nahon, Birkenau: Camp of Death, p. 53.

69. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor, pp. 6–7; Parvilahti, Berits Gardens, p. 98.

70. P. Barton U institution concentrationnaire en Russe 1930–1957 (Paris, 1959), p. 80; on norm competition in the camps see L. von Koerber Sowjetrussland kämpft gegen das Verbrechen (Berlin, 1933), pp. 24–5.

71. Dwork and van Pelt, Auschwitz, pp. 194–6; P. Steinberg Speak You Also: a Survivor’s Reckoning (London, 2001), pp. 66–71.

72. A. Solzhenitsyn One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (London, 1963), p. 143.

73. Sofsky, Order of Terror, p. 118; Nohan, Birkenau: Camp of Death, p. 39.

74. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, pp. 114–16.

75. Parvilahti, Beria’s Gardens, pp. 109, 125.

76. See for example K. Dunin-Wasowicz Resistance in the Concentration Camps (Warsaw, 1982).

77. Morrison, Ravensbriick, pp. 130–33.

78. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, p. 31.

79. Morrison, Ravensbriick, p. 365; J. Bardach and K. Gleeson Man is Wolf to Man: Surviving the Gulag (Berkeley, Calif., 1998) pp. 191–3.

80. Steinberg, Speak You Also, p. 72.

81. Bardach and Gleeson, Man is Wolf to Man, pp. 227–8.

82. For example Parvilahti, Beria’s Gardens, pp. 118, 125; see too, Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, p. 135.

83. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor, p. 6.

84. Bardach and Gleeson, Man is Wolf to Man, pp. 247–9.

85. Y. Shymko (ed.) For This Was I Born (Toronto, 1973), p. 41; D. Panin The Notebooks ofSologdin (New York, 1976).

86. Steinberg, Speak You Also, p. 77.

87. Morrison, Ravensbrück, pp. 289–91.

88. Parvilahti, Bend’s Gardens, pp. 99–100; Bardach and Gleeson, Man is Wolf to Man, p. 236.

89. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 14–16; B. Perz Projekt Quarz: Steyr-Daimler-Puch und das Konzentrationslager Melk (Vienna, 1991), p. 300; Parvilahti, Beria’s Gardens, pp. 132–3.

90. Steinberg, Speak You Also, p. 22.

91. Barton, Vinstitution concentrationnaire, pp. 78–9; Bardach and Gleeson, Man is Wolf to Man, p. 213.

92. L. Crome Unbroken: Resistance and Survival in the Concentration Camps (London, 1988), pp. 54, 56–7; see too Kaienberg, ‘Vernichtung durch Arbeit’, p. 56.

93. Werth and Moullec, Rapports secrets, pp. 377–82: Report from N. Ezhov, March 1938 ‘on the state of a number of labour camps’; Report of the GUlag operational department, 17 May 1941 on the camp at Sredne-Belsk; Report of deputy chief of GUlag operational department, 23 October 1941 on rising mortality at Aktiubinsk.

94. Crome, Unbroken: Resistance and Survival, p. 62.

95. U. Herbert Best: Biographische Studien über Radikalismus, Weltanschauung und Vernunft 1903–1989 (Bonn, 1996), p. 151; Tuchel, ‘Dimensionen des Terrors’, p. 381.