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57. R. Hanser Prelude to Terror: The Rise of Hitler 1919–1923 (London, 1970), pp. 266–71; in general see D. Schumann Politisches Gewalt in der Weimarer Republik 1919–1933 (Essen, 2001); B. Ziemann ‘Germany after the First World War – a Violent Society?’ Journal of Modern European History, 1 (2003), pp. 80–95.

58. R. Taylor Literature and Society in Germany 1918–1945 (Brighton, 1980), p. 119.

59. V. Berghahn Der Stahlhelm: Bund der Frontsoldaten 1918–1935 (Düsseldorf, 1966), pp. 275–7, 286; P. Longerich Die braunen Bataillone: Geschichte der SA (Munich, 1989), pp. 159, 184. On the ambiguity of this identifi cation with war see S. Kienitz ‘Der Krieg der Invaliden. Helden-Bilder und Männlichkeitskonstruktion nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg’, Militärgeschichtliche Zeitschrift, 60 (2001), pp. 367–402.

60. W. Wette ‘From Kellogg to Hitler (1928–1933). German Public Opinion Concerning the Rejection and Glorifi cation of War’, in W. Deist (ed.) The German Military in the Age of Total War (Oxford, 1985), p. 83.

61. T. Nevin Ernst Jünger and Germany: Into the Abyss 1914–1945 (London, 1997), p. 108; Wette, ‘From Kellogg to Hitler’, p. 85. See too G. Mosse Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (Oxford, 1990), pp. 159–80; K. Theweleit Male Fantasies: Volume II. Male Bodies: psychoanalysing the white terror (Oxford, 1989), pp. 143–76.

62. Wette, ‘From Kellogg to Hitler’, pp. 88–9.

63. W. H. Chamberlin Russia’s Iron Age (London, 1934), p. 193–4.

64. J. W. Baird To Die for Germany: Heroes in the Nazi Pantheon (Bloom-ington, Ind., 1990), pp. 101–3.

65. Baird, To Die for Germany, p. 106.

66. F. J. Stephens Hitler Youth: History, Organisation, Uniforms, Insignia (London, 1973), pp. 5–7, 10–14, 37, 44–5; C. Schubert-Weller Hitler-Jugend: Vom ‘Jungsturm Adolf Hitler’ zur Staatsjugend des Dritten Reiches (Weinheim, 1993), pp. 165–88; L. Pine ‘Creating Conformity: the Training of Girls in the Bund Deutscher MädeV, European History Quarterly’, 33 (2003), pp. 371–5, 377–80.

67. W. Benz ‘Vom freiwilligen Arbeitsdienst zur Arbeitsdienstpfl icht’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 16 (1968), pp. 317–46.

68. Bank of England, German fi les E8/56 204/8 C. A. Gunston ‘The German Labour Service’, The Old Lady, 10 (December, 1934), pp. 277–87.

69. A. E. Gorsuch ‘“NEP Be Damned”: Young Militants in the 1920s and the Culture of Civil War’, Russian Review, 56 (1997), pp. 566–8, 576.

70. Chamberlin, Russia’s Iron Age, pp. 200–202; Erickson, Soviet High Command, pp. 307–8.

71. J. W. Young Totalitarian Language: OrwelVs Newspeak and its Nazi and Communist Antecedents (Charlottesville, Va., 1991), p. 92.

72. Stephens, Hitler Youth, p. 5; on the idealization of the warrior see P. Reichel ‘Festival and Cult: Masculine and Militaristic

Mechanisms of National Socialism’, in J. A. Mangan (ed.) Shaping the Superman: Fascist Body as Political Icon – Aryan Fascism (London, 1999), pp. 153–67.

73. Getzler, ‘Lenin’s Conception of Revolution’, p. 109.

74. Military Writings of Leon Trotsky, vol. iii, p. 374.

75. Chamberlin, Russia’s Iron Age, p. 299.

76. M. Kipp ‘Militarisierung der Lehrlingsausbildung in der “Ordensburg der Arbeit”’, in U. Hermann and U. Nassen (eds) Formative Ästhetik im Nationalsozialismus (Weinheim, 1994), pp. 2.09, 216–17. See too O. Bartov ‘The Missing Years: German Workers, German Soldiers’, in D. Crew (ed.) Nazism and German Society, 1933–1945 (London, 1994), pp. 54–60; W. Wette ‘Ideologien, Propaganda und Innenpolitik als Voraussetzung der Kriegspolitik des Dritten Reiches’, in Deist et ai, Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, pp. 152–4, 166–73.

77. L. Peiffer ‘“Soldatische Haltung in Auftreten und Sprache ist beim Turnunterricht selbstverständlich” – Die Militarisierung und

Disziplinierung des Schulsports’, in Hermann and Nassen, Formative Ästhetik in Nationalsozialismus, pp. 181–3.

78. Military Writings of Leon Trotsky, vol. v, p. 24.

79. S. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism. Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s (Oxford, 1999), p. 17.

80. K.-J. Müller Das Heer und Hitler. Armee und nationalsozialistisches Regime 1933–1940 (Stuttgart, 1969), p. 63.

81. P. Hayes ‘Kurt von Schleicher and Weimar Polities’, Journal of Modern History, 52 (1980), pp. 37–40 for Schleicher’s view of politics.

82. Erickson, Soviet High Command, pp. 316–17.

83. von Hagen, Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship, pp. 206–9; Military Writings of Leon Trotsky, vol. v, p. 23.

84. Erickson, Soviet High Command, p. 309; von Hagen, Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship, pp. 94–100, ch. 5 passim.

85. Bayer, Evolution of the Soviet General Staff, p. 162.

86. Samuelson, Plans for Stalin’s War Machine, pp. 108–9

87. E. O’Ballance The Red Army (London, 1964), pp. 116–18.

88. V. Rapaport and Y. Alexeev High Treason: Essays on the History of the Red Army, 1918–1938 (Durham, NC, 1985), p. 12.

89. H. J. Rautenberg ‘Drei dokumente zur Planung eines 300,000-Mann Friedenheeres aus dem Dezember 1933’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 22 (1977), pp. 103–39; M. Geyer ‘Das Zweite Rüstungsprogramm (1930–1934)’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 17 (1975), pp. 25–72; W. Bernhardt Die deutsche Aufrüstung 1934–1939 (Frankfurt am Main, 1969), pp. 72–4, 84.

90. Carroll, Design for Total War, pp. 91–2, 108–9, 12.

91. R. J. O’Neill The German Army and the Nazi Party, 1933–1939 (London, 1966), p. 87.

92. O’Neill, German Army, p. 90.

93. E. R. Hooton Phoenix Triumphant: the Rise and Rise of the Luftwaffe (London, 1994), pp. 94–9, 110–11; E. Homze Arming the Luftwaffe: the Reich Air Ministry and the German Aircraft Industry, 1919–39 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1976), pp. 51–60, 98–103; A. van Ishoven The Fall of an Eagle: the Life of Fighter Ace Ernst Udet (London, 1977), pp. 152–3, 161–2.

94. Bundesarchiv-Berlin, R2/21776–81, Reich fi nance ministry ‘Entwicklung der Ausgaben in der Rechnungsjahren 1934–1939’, 17 July 1939.

95. O’Neill, German Army, p. 115; A. W. Zoepf Wehrmacht zwischen Tradition und Ideologie: Der NS-Führungsoffi zier im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Frankfurt am Main, 1988), pp. 24–9.

96. O’Neill, German Army, pp. 119–20.

97. See on tensions between old and new elements M. Geyer Traditional Elites and National Socialist Leadership’, in C. Maier (ed.) The Rise of the Nazi Regime: New Perspectives (London, 1986), pp. 57–68; Deist et ai, Deutsches Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, pp. 500–17.

98. On army/SS relations O’Neill, German Army, pp. 143–52.