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123. Zile, Ideas and Forces, pp. 297–8, decree ‘On Supplementing the Statute on Crimes Against the State… with Articles Covering Treason’.

124. Hazard et al., Soviet Legal System, pp. 5–6; E. Ginzburg Into the Whirlwind (London, 1967), p. 131.

125. Rabofsky and Oberkofl er, Verborgene Wurzeln, pp. 85–6; Müller, Hitler’s Justice, p. 74.

126. Pfaff, sowjetischen Rechtslehre, p. 117.

127. Royal Institute of International Affairs Nationalism (London, 1939), p. 72.

128. Wetter, Dialectical Materialism, p. 176.

129. Guins, Soviet Law and Soviet Society, p. 32.

130. Scholder, Requiem for Hitler, pp. 47–8.

131. Kolnai, War Against the West, pp. 55–6.

132. Bendersky, Carl Schmitt, pp. 38–9; Müller, Hitler’s Justice, p. 72.

133. Kolnai, War Against the West, p. 289.

134. G. Neesse Die Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (Stuttgart, 1935), p. 10.

135. Majer, Grundlagen des nationalsozialistischen Rechtssystems, p. 103.

136. Wetter, Dialectical Materialism, p. 268.

137. Douglas, God among the Germans, p. 25.

138. V. Kravchenko I Chose Freedom: The Personal and Political Life of a Soviet Offi cial (London, 1947), p. 275.

139. de George, Soviet Ethics and Morality, p. 83.

140. Guins, Soviet Law and Soviet Society, p. 30.

141. Kolnai, War Against the West, pp. 291, 293–4; on the ideal of hardness see J. Hoberman ‘Primacy of Performance: Superman not Superathlete’, in J. A. Mangan (ed.) Shaping the Superman: Fascist Body as Political Icon – Aryan Fascism (London, 1999), pp. 78–9.

142. Imperial War Museum, London, FO 645, Box 157, testimony of Rudolf Höss taken at Nuremberg, 5 April 1946, p. 11.

143. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, p. 304; Pfaff, sowjetischen Rechtslehre, p. 111.

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1. Uncensored Germany: Letters and News Sent Secretly from Germany to the German Freedom Party (London, 1940), pp. 71–3, letter from a teacher, 14 August 1939.

2. Uncensored Germany, pp. 69–73. See too B. Engelmann In Hitler’s Germany: Everyday Life in the Third Reich (London, 1988), p. 38. Engelmann estimated that between 10 and 18 per cent of his classmates at school were ‘real Nazis’.

3. See for example R. Gellately Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany (Oxford, 2001); N. Frei ‘People’s Community and War: Hitler’s Popular Suppott’, in H. Mommsen (ed.) The Third Reich between Vision and Reality: New Perspectives on German History 1918–1945 (Oxford, 2001), pp. 59–74; D. Hoffmann Stalinist Values: the Cultural Norms of Soviet Modernity 1917–1941 (Ithaca, NY, 2003).

4. G. M. Ivanova Labor Camp Socialism: the Gulag in the Soviet Totalitarian System (New York, 2000), p. 51: a farmworker was found to have 850 grammes of rye concealed, and was sentenced by the Belgorod District Court to fi ve years in a camp in 1947. H. James ‘The Deutsche Bank and the Dictatorship 1933–1945’, in L. Gall et aL The Deutsche Bank, 1870–1945 (London, 1995), p. 350. The bank director Hermann Kohler was executed for saying that National Socialism was ‘nothing more than a fart’.

5. See I. Kershaw The ‘Hitler Myth’: Image and Reality in the Third Reich (Oxford, 1987), pp. 83–104; I. Kershaw ‘The Führer-Image and Political Integration: the Popular Conception of Hitler in Bavaria during the Third Reich’, in G. Hirschfeld and L. Kettenacker (eds) Der ‘Führerstaat’: Mythos and Realität (Stuttgart, 1981), pp. 133–60.

6. Engelmann, In Hitler’s Germany, p. vii.

7. A. Solzhenitsyn The Gulag Archipelago 1918–1956 (London, 1974), pp. 18–20.

8. See for example the political police reports in J. Schadt (ed.) Verfolgung und Widerstand unter dem Nationalsozialismus in Baden. Die Lageberichte der Gestapo und des Generalstaatsanwalts Karslruhe 1933–1940 (Stuttgart, 1976). These reports were structured to report any manifestations of hostility or non-compliance, but not evidence of complicity or enthusiasm.

9. J.-P. Depretto ‘L’opinion ouvriere (1928–1932)’, Revue des Etudes Slaves, 66 (1994), pp. 59.

10. For example Schadt, Verfolgung und Widerstand in Baden, p. 107, ‘Stand und Tätigkeit der staatsfeindlichen Betätigungen’, 4 October 1934.

11. D. Schmiechen-Ackermann Nationalsozialismus und Arbeitermilieus: Der nationalsozialistische Angriff auf die proletarischen Wohnquartiere und die Reaktion in den sozialistischen Vereinen (Bonn, 1998), p. 756.

12. L. Siegelbaum ‘Soviet Norms Determination in Theory and Practice 1917–1941’, Soviet Studies, 36 (1984), pp. 46–8; on worker legal protection in the 1920s see M. Ilic Women Workers in the Soviet Inter-War Economy: From ‘Protection’ to ‘Equality’ (London, 1999), pp. 46–52.

13. J.-P. Depretto Les Ouvriers en U.R.S.S. 1918–1941 (Paris, 1997), pp. 276–7; T. Szamuely ‘The Elimination of Opposition between the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Congresses of the CPSU’, Soviet Studies, 17 (1966), pp. 335–6; A. Graziosi A New, Peculiar State: Explorations in Soviet History 1917–1937 (Westport, Conn., 2000), pp. 179–83; J. B. Sorensen The Life and Death of Soviet Trade Unionism 1917–1918 (New York, 1969), pp. 245–53.

14. Graziosi, New, Peculiar State, pp. 190–91.

15. Graziosi, New, Peculiar State, pp. 192–4; D. Filtzer ‘Stalinism and the “Working Class in the 1930s’, in J. Channon (ed.) Politics, Society and Stalinism in the USSR (London, 1998), pp. 172–8; Szamuely, ‘Elimination of Opposition’, pp. 336–7; D. Filtzer Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialization: the Formation of Modern Soviet Production Relations 1918–1941 (London, 1986), pp. 107–15, 135–46.

16. V. Kravchenko I Chose Freedom: The Personal and Political Life of a Soviet Offi cial (London, 1947), pp. 311–15; L. E. Hubbard Soviet Labour and Industry (London, 1942), pp. 96–7.

17. J. Harrer ‘Gewerkschaftlicher Widerstand gegen das “Dritte Reich”’, in F. Deppe, G. Fülberth and J. Harrer (eds) Geschichte der deutschen Werkschaftsbewegung (4th edn, Cologne, 1989), pp. 349–56; S. Mielke and M. Frese (eds) Die Gewerkschaften im Widerstand und in der Emigration 1933–1945 (Frankfurt am Main, 1999), pp. 13–17; G. Mai’ “Warum steht der deutsche Arbeiter zu Hitler?” Zur Rolle der Deutschen Arbeitsfront im Herrschaftssystem des Dritten Reiches’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 13 (1987), pp. 215–17.

18. C. W. Guillebaud The Economic Recovery of Germany, 1933–1938 (London, 1939), pp. 110–11.

19. Harrer, ‘Gewerkschaftlicher Widerstand’, p. 344.

20. Harrer, ‘Gewerkschaftlicher Widerstand’, pp. 346–9; Mielcke and Frese, Gewerkschaften in Widerstand, pp. 13–16.

21. Harrer, ‘Gewerkschaftlicher Widerstand’, pp. 372–7; G. Beier Die illegale Reichsleitung der Gewerkschaften 1933–1945 (Cologne, 1981), pp. 41–3, 73.