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142. Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 194.

143. Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 129–31; Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, p. 155; Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, pp.

193–5; S. G. Solomon ‘The demographic argument in Soviet debates over the legalization of abortion in the 1920s’, Cahiers du monde russe, 33 (1992), pp. 60–65.

144. Halfi n, ‘Rape of the Intelligentsia’, p. 104; McClelland, ‘Utopianism versus Revolutionary Heroism’, p. 405.

145. R. A. Bauer The New Man in Soviet Psychology (Cambridge, Mass., 1952), pp. 124, 132, 143–50.

146. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, pp. 522–33.

147. L. Siegelbaum Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR, 1935–1941 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 68–71.

148. Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism, p. 73.

149. V. Bonnell The Iconography of the Worker in Soviet Political Art’, in L. Siegelbaum and R. Suny (eds) Making Workers Soviet: Power Class and Identity (Ithaca, NY, 1994), pp. 361–2; Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, pp. 73–5; K. Clark ‘Utopian Anthropology as a Context for Stalinist Literature’, in R. Tucker (ed.) Stalinism Essays in Historical Interpretation (New York, 1977), pp. 185–6.

150. Clark, ‘Utopian Anthropology’, pp. 183–4; Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, p.77; Bonnell, ‘Iconography of the Worker’, pp. 367–9.

151. Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 108–9, 112; Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 187.

152. Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 118–19; Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism, pp. 190–91.

153. Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 177.

154. Buckley, Women and Ideology, p. 117.

155. J. E. Bowlt and M. Drutt (eds) Amazons of the Avant-Garde (London, 1999), pp. 54–5; Bonnell, ‘Iconography of the Worker’, pp. 369, 71.

156. K. Theweleit Male Fantasies. Male bodies: psychoanalysing the white terror (Oxford, 1989), p. 163; B. Taylor and W. van der Will (eds) The Nazifi cation of Art: Art, Design, Music, Architecture and Film in the Third Reich (Winchester, 1990),

p. 63. See too J. A. Mangan ‘Icon of Monumental Brutality: Art and the Aryan Man’, in Mangan, Shaping the Superman, pp. 139–49.

157. Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, p. 46.

158. Blomquist, ‘Utopian Elements’, p. 300; Rouvidois, ‘Utopia and Totalitarianism’, p. 322.

159. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 531.

160. Rouvidois, ‘Utopia and Totalitarianism’ p. 324.

161. Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, p. 68.

162. Allan, Comrades and Citizens, pp. 208–9.

163. See R. Gellately Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany (Oxford, 2001) and C. Koonz The Nazi Conscience (Cambridge, Mass., 2003), which both explore different ways in which ordinary Germans came to accept and justify the dictatorship.

164. Rouvidois, ‘Utopia and Totalitarianism’, p. 330.

165. E. Kamenka ‘Soviet Philosophy’, in A. Smirenko (ed.) Social Thought in the Soviet Union (Chicago, 1969), pp. 89–90;

K. Bayertz ‘From Utopia to Science? The Development of Socialist Theory between Utopia and Science’, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook: Vol VIII (Dordrecht, 1984), pp. 93–110. See too L. R. Graham Science, Philosophy and Human Behaviour in the Soviet Union (New York, 1987), esp. Chs. v – vii.

166. The complex relationship between modern science and the regime is explored in Szöllösi-Janze, Science in the Third Reich; see too M. Renneberg and M. Walker (eds) Science, TechnologyandNationalSocialism (Cambridge, 1994).

167. J. W. Baird To Die for Germany: Heroes in the Nazi Pantheon (Bloomington, Ind., 1990).

168. Bauer, New Man, pp. 144–5; on abortion see Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 195.

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1. G. C. Guins Soviet Law and Soviet Society (The Hague, 1954), p. 29.

2. A. Koenen Der Fall Carl Schmitt; sein Aufstieg zum ‘Kronjuristen des Dritten Retches’ (Darmstadt, 1995), p. 612.

3. J. Stalin Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), pp. 569–78, ‘Dialectical and Historical Materialism’, September 1938; see too E. Kamenka ‘Soviet Philosophy 1917–1967’, in A. Smirenko (ed.) Social Thought in the Soviet Union (Chicago, 1969), p. 53. Primers on dialectical materialism were issued in printruns of 250,000 to 500,000.

4. N. Harding Leninism (London, 1996), p. 226.

5. R. T. de George Patterns of Soviet Thought (New York, 1966), pp. 171–2.

6. G. Wetter Dialectical Materialism: A Historical and Systematic Survey of Philosophy in the Soviet Union (New York, 1958), pp. 219–20.

7. A. Hitler Mein Kampf, ed. D. C. Watt (London, 1968), p. 258; W. Maser (ed.) Hitler’s Letters and Notes (New York, 1977), p. 280; D. Gasman The Scientifi c Origins of National Socialism (London, 1971), pp. 47–9.

8. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 260; Maser, Hitler’s Letters and Notes, p. 280.

9. E. Jäckel Hitler’s World View: a Blueprint for Power (Middleton, Conn., 1981), p. 94.

10. A. Hitler The Secret Book, ed. T. Taylor (New York, 1961), p. 6; see too E. Fraenkel The Dual State. A Contribution to the Theory of Dictatorship (New York, 1941), pp. 108–9, citing Hans Gerber’s view that National Socialist political thought was ‘existential and biological, its data being the primal unique life process’.

11. Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 268–9.

12. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 578; Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 262.

13. P. van Paassen Visions Rise and Change (New York, 1955), pp. 100–106.

14. J. Bergman The Image of Jesus in the Russian Revolutionary Movement. The Case of Russian Marxism’, International Review of Social History, 25 (1990), p. 226.

15. P. J. Duncan Russian Messianism: Third Rome, Revolution, Communism and After (London, 2000), pp. 51–2; D. G. Rowley Millenarian Bolshevism, 1900–1920 (New York, 1987), pp. 355–72; W. B. Hubbard ‘Godless Communists’: Atheism and Society in Soviet Russia 1917–1932 (Dekalb, Ill., 2000), pp. 30–35.

16. V. Lenin Collected Works (45 vols., Moscow, 1963), vol. xxxv, p. 121, letter to Maxim Gorky, 13 or 14 November 1913, pp. 127–8, letter to Maxim Gorky, November 1913. See too D. V. Pospielovsky A History of Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies: Vol I: A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory and Practice (London, 1987), pp. 1–17.

17. Hubbard, ‘Godless Communists’, p. 47.

18. M. A. Meersoix The Political Philosophy of the Russian Orthodox Episcopate in the Soviet Period’, in G. Hosking (ed.) Church, Nation and State in Russia and Ukraine (London, 1991), p. 217.

19. van Paassen, Visions Rise and Change, p. 63; E. Trubetskoy ‘The Bolshevist Utopia and the Religious Movement in Russia’, in M. Bohachevsky-Chomiak and B. G. Rosenthal (eds) A Revolution of the Spirit: Crisis of Values in Russia 1890–1918 (Newtonville, Mass., 1982.), pp. 331–2, 336–8.